tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-59807271039127269892024-03-05T11:42:04.972-08:00International bLAWgMax Brookman-Byrnehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12127758207216761634noreply@blogger.comBlogger7125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5980727103912726989.post-56061015389611820132017-10-12T07:28:00.000-07:002017-10-12T07:37:24.677-07:00The lawfulness of the drone strike against Sally JonesIt was today revealed by various newspapers (for instance, the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/12/british-isis-member-sally-jones-white-widow-killed-airstrike-son-islamic-state-syria">Guardian</a>, <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-41593659">BBC</a> and <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4971652/British-ISIS-recruiter-Sally-Jones-killed-drone.html">Mail</a>) that Sally Jones, the so-called 'White Widow', has likely been killed by a targeted drone strike. Jones was described as being a member of ISIS and was apparently killed, along with her 12-year-old son, in June 2017 near the Iraq-Syria border.<br />
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As a researcher whose work for the last three and a bit years has been on the lawfulness of drone strikes, the question of whether this strike was lawful or not immediately came to mind. Jones was viewed as a member of ISIS and generally the media has uncritically reported her death, implying an assumption that the strike was lawful. But is this correct?<br />
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There is an armed conflict occurring in the situation in which Jones was targeted. This means that a particular set of international laws apply, known as 'international humanitarian law' (IHL), or the law of armed conflict. These rules give states, among other things, much greater scope to use lethal force, which ordinarily would be highly constrained. So, when considering the lawfulness of the strike against Jones it is IHL that we apply.<br />
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During armed conflicts, IHL allows members of the state armed forces to be targeted at any time (subject to restrictions: medical and religious personnel cannot be targeted). However, the same categorical approach is not permitted in terms of members of non-state armed groups. As they are not members of a state's armed forces, the members of these groups are viewed a civilians. Within IHL civilians are protected against attack and may not be targeted unless they directly participate in hostilities.<br />
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The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) has interpreted 'direct participation in hostilities' to mean that members of non-state armed groups will lose their protection as civilians only if they carry out a 'continuous combat function'. This is controversial, with many arguing the ICRC approach is too restrictive and that membership alone should be sufficient to cause someone to lose their civilian protection. This is the position held by the United States. Others think that the ICRC approach is too broad and that an individual may only be targeted during a specific hostile act. While the details of this debate are too complex to set out presently, it suffices to say that, ultimately, the ICRC's position seems to find a middle ground between these two perspectives and is a useful tool for analysis.<br />
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So, the question is: was Sally Jones directly participating in hostilities, either through a specific hostile act, or by carrying out a continuous combat function, when she was targeted? The answer depends on facts that have not yet been made public, but we can make some assumptions. She was said by the Mail to have been killed 'while trying to flee Raqqa' which, though not removing the possibility that she was engaged in a hostile act, seems to imply that she was not. This suggests that she was targeted due to her purported membership of ISIS.<br />
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Therefore me must next ask whether the nature of her membership of ISIS meant that she could be targeted. An important detail is that the ex-head of counter-terrorism Ministry of Defence is quoted in the Guardian article as having described Jones as a 'significant' target, due to the fact that she was an active recruiter for the group. She was active on social media, encouraging individuals to travel to Syria to join ISIS or to carry out attacks in the UK.<br />
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This is not a good thing for a person to do, but does it render them a lawful target for lethal force? There are plenty of despicable people on the internet, but is it right that this should render them liable to be killed out of the blue? For me, the answer is no. Nasty as this conduct no doubt is (or was), there is no way that this behaviour can be construed as being sufficient to make Sally Jones a lawful target. This chimes with the interpretation of the ICRC which has <a href="https://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/icrc-002-0990.pdf">specifically argued that</a> recruitment (page 53) and propaganda (page 51) activities do not equate to a continuous combat function, nor to direct participation in hostilities. On this basis, the strike that killed Sally Jones and her son is most likely to be unlawful.<br />
<br />
Others will disagree, utilising more expansive interpretations of the law but the fact that such a position requires an expansive (and contested) interpretation demonstrates that it is not a firm legal basis. However, even if my conclusion is disputed I would argue that it is not possible to assert that the strike was certainly lawful. That view can only be sustained by a adopting a particular view of the law, one that doesn't reflect academic consensus and which opens up much greater scope for the use of lethal force against civilians.<br />
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IHL is designed to limit hostilities, not enable them. It should not be treated as a set of rules giving broad powers to states to target individuals, but as a body of law to protect those affected by conflict. This is particularly so in terms of conflicts between a state (or states) and a non-state armed group, in which there is more scope for civilians to become affected by and mixed up in conflict. ISIS are a truly awful group of people, there is no question about that, but just because a person supports them should not make that person liable to lethal targeting. The boundaries of conflict should not be stretched to include those civilians who are involved in a manner not directly related to hostilities. Online activities like those of Sally Jones do not bring an individual into the scope of people who may be killed, no matter how unpleasant we find them. That is not what the law is for, nor should it be.<br />
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<br />Max Brookman-Byrnehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12127758207216761634noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5980727103912726989.post-3967716023008935292017-09-01T03:00:00.000-07:002019-09-12T08:37:05.094-07:00My publicationsMax Brookman-Byrne 'Drone use "outside areas of active hostilities": an examination of the legal paradigms governing US covert remote strikes' (2017) 64(1) <i>Netherlands International Law Review</i> 3-41 (open access, available <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40802-017-0078-1?wt_mc=Internal.Event.1.SEM.ArticleAuthorOnlineFirst">here</a>)<br />
<br />
Max Byrne 'Consent and the use of force: an examination of "intervention by invitation" as a basis for US drone strikes in Pakistan, Somalia and Yemen' (2016) 3(1) <i>Journal on the Use of Force and International Law </i>97-125 (open access, available <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/20531702.2015.1135658">here</a>)<br />
<br />
Max Byrne 'The failed state and failed state-building: how can a move away from the failed state discourse inform development in Somalia?' (2013) 1(1) <i>Birkbeck Law Review</i> 111-134 (open access, available <a href="http://www.bbklr.org/1-1-5.html">here</a>)Max Brookman-Byrnehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12127758207216761634noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5980727103912726989.post-938097375993030652016-11-01T04:06:00.000-07:002016-11-02T05:02:19.486-07:00The transformation of international law and the rise of drones series, part I<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">This post is the first in a series (well, hopefully
a series, but let’s face it, PhD ≠ free time) that I am going to do on the way
in which international law is being or may be transformed by the increased use of armed
drones by states. It is, in large part, an exercise for me to order my own
thoughts on the matter, but I also hope that it will provide some food for
thought among those with interests in international law, politics and technology,
about what drones might mean for the future. So here goes…</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">It has been a theory of mine, since before
I began my research into drones and international law, that the rise of these remotely
piloted weapons might have the result of promoting, within states, a desire to
interpret the law in a way that is more permissive of the use of force.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The logic behind the theory runs like this: Until now, states' desires to use force have been restrained by both <i>concrete </i>practical and <i>abstract </i>legal impediments. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12pt;">Drones make the extraterritorial use of force a much more ‘simple’ endeavour, as they remove much that has previously
presented a physical, concrete barrier to such actions, at least for those with
the infrastructure to fly them. As a result of the removal of concrete barriers to uses of force, states
become restrained solely by abstract
barriers. International law, and its symbiotic relation (or perhaps its
alter-ego) international politics, represents the most instantly present of these
abstract barriers, manifesting in such things as the prohibition on the use of
force under Article 2(4) of the United Nations Charter.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> When concrete impediments are overcome and law remains the only barrier, not
only is there is an incentive to change the way that law operates, but it is likely
to occur as a necessary consequence as practice expands to fill its new
horizons, sort of like an international law version of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_law">Parkinson’s law</a>. </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Areas of</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> international law representing the principle barrier(s) to uses of force </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">become focal points, either by design or accident, which are put under stress by practices that occur at the limits of its flexibility, which may ultimately change its shape, like an elastic band which loses its elasticity, or a much-loved sock which just ends up looking sad and tired... Maybe there is a better analogy. Nope, that'll do.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The change
in the law produced by drone use is not an </span><i style="font-size: 12pt;">overturning</i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">
of that law, but a blurring of it through </span><i style="font-size: 12pt;">interpretation</i><span style="font-size: 12pt;">.
There is not a concerted and overt campaign to change the law, but rather a
constant stress placed upon those areas which represent barriers. There
is no chance, for instance, that the use of drones will signal the end of the
prohibition on the use of force under Article 2(4) of the UN Charter. But it may
result in an increased permeability of that rule, as the exceptions to it—principally
self-defence—are gradually widened. And it is these sites of the law being ‘widened’,
or made more permissive of uses of force that I would like to focus on over the
coming months.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><o:p><br /></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">I have <a href="http://themaxbblog.blogspot.co.uk/2016/10/drones-and-politics-of-international-law.html">argued previously</a> that the growth of
drones is likely to speed up the transformation of the ‘armed attack’
requirement of Article 51 of the UN Charter form a state-against-state mechanism
to one which focuses on attacks by non-state actors. But I believe that there
are many other areas of international law which are potentially at risk of
interpretive transformation as a result of this new technology. I intend to
consider a number of these within this blog, and to set out my argument as to
why drones present a possible ‘challenge’ to the current state of the law (I
put the word challenge in inverted commas as, of course, some might see this as
a welcome opportunity to expand international law in a way that will enable
states to defend themselves more efficiently. Needless to say, perhaps, I don’t
share this view!).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The key areas (in addition to the armed attack requirement) I have identified as being most
susceptible to change are:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB">The gravity requirement within
self-defence<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB">The unable and unwilling test
within self-defence<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB">The law governing the consent
of states to third state interventions<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">-<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-GB">The law governing the existence
of non-international armed conflicts<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">It will be noted that these areas of law
are, for the most part, the gateways to uses of force, rather than aspects of
international law that govern conduct in the use of force. I suppose that this
is a result of the fact that drones are being viewed from the perspective of
technology that enables the use of force, so it follows that the areas of law
they impact upon are those involved in the enabling/disenabling of uses of
force. These are the abstract barriers. It is pure coincidence that these areas
of law coincide with those so far covered in my PhD thesis on drones and
international law!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
So, hopefully I will have a chance to post the first substantive piece in the series within the coming weeks. I look forward to writing it and I hope you enjoy reading it!</div>
Max Brookman-Byrnehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12127758207216761634noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5980727103912726989.post-34052894889918970362016-10-07T07:17:00.000-07:002016-10-07T07:17:21.817-07:00Drones and the politics of international law<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Drones (also known as unmanned aerial
vehicles or remotely piloted aircraft systems among other monikers), though not
yet ubiquitous, are increasingly permeating our daily lives. They are used by
scientists, police forces, hobbyists and delivery companies (but only for <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-09-08/burrito-by-drone-coming-to-campus-in-test-of-alphabet-s-delivery">burritos</a>...). Only the
other day, while my partner and I were walking in the isolated North York moors,
a drone hummed determinedly across the sky. But it was not a
quadcopter being flown by a member of the public, it was (most likely, having
referred to the very handy <a href="http://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/482333/24887339/1400079696883/Drone+Survival+Guide.jpg?token=7LEGGoom99SI0h7KFAw7PKieRLA%3D">Drone
Survival Guide</a>) a ‘Hermes’ military surveillance drone, operated by the
Royal Air Force, providing a clear reminder that the growth of drones has
arguably had its most palpable manifestation within the field of armed conflict.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Drones have had a place in this field since
at least the First World War, and they have subsequently played a part in many
conflicts, including Korea, Vietnam, the Yom Kippur War and Yugoslavia. However,
though some of these drones were used lethally as guided bombs, most were purely for reconnaissance. It was not until the Kosovo war that a
drone, the Predator, was armed<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_edn1" name="_ednref1" style="mso-endnote-id: edn1;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[i]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
and later still, during the war in Afghanistan, that <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/2404425.stm">a missile was fired by a
drone</a>.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"> </span>Since then, the number of
drones has grown at a staggering rate. In 2000 the US had fewer than
50 drones<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_edn2" name="_ednref2" style="mso-endnote-id: edn2;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[ii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
but by 2012 this had <a href="http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/the-rise-of-the-killer-drones-how-america-goes-to-war-in-secret-20120416">risen
to over 19,000</a>, set to rise as the P<a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/08/17/us-usa-security-drones-idUSKCN0QM1FR20150817">entagon
seeks to increase its daily drone flights by 50%</a>. Drones therefore have the
capacity to change the traditional picture of warfare from one of direct
personal engagement to one that is indirect and impersonal, at least for those
states with the infrastructure to fly them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Nonetheless, this transformation does not
have immediate implications for armed conflicts and the law that governs them—from
a doctrinal perspective, drones are not <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">per
se</i> legally problematic, they are ‘conventional weapons’ under international
law and they are not prohibited under any of the treaties that restrict the use
of certain weapons.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_edn3" name="_ednref3" style="mso-endnote-id: edn3;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[iii]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, this statement masks the fact that
it is not the weapon itself that is controversial, but the uses to which it can
be put. On 3 November 2002, the <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/2402479.stm#downdrone">US fired a missile from
a Predator drone operating in Yemen</a>, which killed six people including a reputed
high-ranking member of al-Qaeda, wanted by the FBI in connection with the
attack on the USS Cole in 2000. The importance of this event is difficult to
overstate as it represented the first drone strike undertaken outside of a
combat zone, against a non-state actor with no link to the state in
which they were present. It is therefore of a distinctly different character,
demonstrating the ability of drones to transcend the traditional boundaries of
‘war’. Since that first extra-conflictual strike, the use of drones in this
manner has increased dramatically and the US flies them constantly in Pakistan,
Yemen and Somalia. The number of deaths from drone strikes is <a href="https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/category/projects/drones/drones-graphs/">now
well over 5,000</a>, many of which have been civilian. What drones represent
therefore is a dramatically increased ability of states to use extraterritorial
force avoiding much in the way of public accountability. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Luckily, untrammelled force on the part of
powerful states is circumscribed by the framework of law that governs the use
of force by states, known as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jus ad
bellum.</i><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_edn4" name="_ednref4" style="mso-endnote-id: edn4;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[iv]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
This area of law comes out of the historic practice of states (known as
customary international law) and, most importantly, the Charter of the United
Nations. Article 2(4) of the Charter creates a universal prohibition on the use
of force by states, subject only to a handful of exceptions. Principal among
these is force used in self-defence;<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_edn5" name="_ednref5" style="mso-endnote-id: edn5;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[v]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
under Article 51 of the UN Charter and international customary law, a state may use force ‘if an armed attack occurs’ and if it is necessary and
proportionate.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_edn6" name="_ednref6" style="mso-endnote-id: edn6;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[vi]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
The Charter has been acceded to by ostensibly every state in the world and
therefore we may assume that when drone strikes are carried out, they are done
so in line with these laws. Indeed the US has <a href="http://www.justice.gov/opa/speech/attorney-general-eric-holder-speaks-northwestern-university-school-law">insisted</a>
(in the guise of assertions about its wider use of force) that its global drone
programme is carried out in line with international law. Thus it is possible to
aver that the resort to drone strikes can be lawful under the rubric of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jus ad bellum</i> and that as such their use
is done so in accordance with the international law; those actions that would
be illegal are not carried out. End of story.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">But of course this is not the end of the
story at all. To claim that the law restricts the use of force and that
therefore any resort to drones must be legal (I mean, come on, states aren't going to breach international law are they? Right??) is to ignore part of the picture. This is that the law is a political process, subject to competing interpretations
vying to crystallise a particular view of the law, advancing specific interests. In the words of Martti
Koskenniemi, the law is a ‘[p]olitical struggle … waged … on the meaning of
legal symbols’.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_edn7" name="_ednref7" style="mso-endnote-id: edn7;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[vii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And drones provide a catalytic point around
which these divergent interpretations converge by virtue of the fact that they
represent a (relatively) easy way of states to resort to forceful actions. To
put it another way, when force is a practical difficultly and therefore less
likely to be used, it makes no difference whether the legal system in which it
is used is restrictive or permissive; however, when the resort to force is
readily available, the practical barrier has been removed and only the legal
one remains. This consequently rests a state’s foreign policy options on whatever is
the dominant interpretation of the law, giving states a huge motivation to interpret the law in a way that suits them.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">This interpretive struggle is evident throughout
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jus ad bellum</i> but it is at its most
clear when we look at a state’s ability to resort to force not
against another state, but against a non-state actor (NSA). Under Article 51 of
the UN Charter, which preserves states’ ‘inherent right’ to self-defence, a
state may respond forcefully only when they have suffered an ‘armed attack’,
but there is no definition of what such an attack constitutes. Consequently,
the notion of an ‘armed attack’ presents itself as a legal concept which cannot
but exist through interpretation. The key site of interpretive struggle
over its meaning is whether such an attack can only come from another state
(this could be via a NSA but requires a link between that NSA at the state in
which it resides), thus restricting a ‘victim’ state’s right to self-defence, or
whether it can come from a NSA, therefore expanding a state’s right to
self-defence.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The UN Charter regime has been
traditionally understood to emphasise the limitation of the use of force and it
has been said that during the foundation of the UN ‘the general tendency was
towards a restrictionist interpretation of any permission in relation to the
use of force.’<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_edn8" name="_ednref8" style="mso-endnote-id: edn8;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[viii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
The traditional teleology of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jus ad
bellum </i>is like the ‘perpetual peace’ of Kant</span>’s cosmopolitanism.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_edn9" name="_ednref9" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[ix]</span></span></span></a> This provides the first interpretation of the
law—the ‘restrictionist’ approach. This interpretive underpinning has been
borne out by judicial decisions considering the possibility of armed attacks
originating from NSAs. In the case of <i><a href="http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/70/6503.pdf">Nicaragua v United
States</a></i>, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) held that for an armed
attack to be carried out by a NSA, there must be some degree of connection
between that NSA and the state in which they reside<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_edn10" name="_ednref10" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[x]</span></span></span></a>
(though without saying what this degree needed to be). Similarly, in the <i>Wall</i>
advisory opinion of 2005, the Court referred to ‘the existence of an inherent
right of self-defence in the case of an armed attack by one state against
another state’.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_edn11" name="_ednref11" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xi]</span></span></span></a> Finally, in <i><a href="http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/116/10455.pdf">DRC v
Uganda</a></i> the Court again cited the need for a non-state actor to be
linked with a state before self-defence can be invoked.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_edn12" name="_ednref12" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xii]</span></span></span></a> Under this interpretation of the
international law of self-defence, drone strikes would be restricted to
conflicts which are ostensibly between states. Attacks carried out by NSAs
would necessarily be treated as crimes and accordingly be dealt with as a
matter of law enforcement. It is thus that such an interpretation can be
understood to focus on and promote peace rather than allowing states easily to
use military force in the territory of others.</div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">Despite this seemingly staunch support for
the requirement of a link between NSA and territorial state, the traditional
restrictionist approach has been challenged by an opposed interpretation that emphasises
states’ security requirements over the pursuit of peace. This alternative
interpretive paradigm entirely removes the requirement of a state-NSA nexus and
consequently creates a regime in which the lawful resort to force is much more
readily available, known as the ‘expansionist’ approach. Jordan Paust referred to 19<sup>th</sup> Century state practice to interpret the armed attack concept as
requiring no state-NSA link<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_edn13" name="_ednref13" style="mso-endnote-id: edn13;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xiii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
while others have suggested that preventing self-defence against independent
NSAs would undermine the object and purpose of the UC Charter.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_edn14" name="_ednref14" style="mso-endnote-id: edn14;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xiv]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This expansionist interpretation appears
to have found favour with states in their recent practice as well, an example
of which being the use of force against ISIL in Syria, in which self-defence
appears to have been raised.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_edn15" name="_ednref15" style="mso-endnote-id: edn15;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xv]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In contradistinction to the restrictionist
paradigm above, this formulation of self-defence allows states to undertake
forceful actions in the territory of others much more readily, and makes
conflict a much more likely prospect, to the point of normalisation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">The use of drone strikes in Pakistan, Yemen
and Somalia <a href="http://www.justice.gov/opa/speech/attorney-general-eric-holder-speaks-northwestern-university-school-law">has
been justified by self-defence</a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_edn16" name="_ednref16" style="mso-endnote-id: edn16;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS 明朝"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xvi]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
and in these instances force has been used against NSAs which are not linked to
those states. In this manner it is entirely clear how their use has been made
possible through an interpretation of the law and that the expansionist
interpretation is currently dominating. Likewise, it is easy to see how this
understanding of self-defence could be employed in the future to justify their
further use. Drones therefore represent a coming together of the concrete and
the abstract; when an expansionist interpretation is adopted, drones are the
point at which the practical and legal possibilities of the use of force become
congruent. They allow those states with the capacity to operate them the
ability to use military force to police an entire region, as is arguably the
case in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas in Pakistan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB">In conclusion, it is vital that those
studying drones are cognisant of the inherent plasticity and interpretive
flexibility of the international law governing the resort to force. It is
submitted that drones have arisen in an epoch that is hallmarked by an
increased desire on the part of states to use force and a consequent reduction
of global stability. The law cannot be viewed as a fixed structure which checks
state uses of force—to do so would be result in the loss of all critical legal
faculty. Drones have pushed to the forefront many inherent tensions within
international law and without examination and resistance these have the
potential to resolve themselves into a system that is highly permissive of the
use of drones. The risk is the creation of conditions that encourage powerful
states to subject weaker ones to near perpetual militarised policing from the
air. This rather bleak prediction may sound far-fetched but it is already the
case in the tribal areas of Pakistan. The need for critique is immediate.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_ednref1" name="_edn1" style="mso-endnote-id: edn1;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[i]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> M Benjamin <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Drone Warfare;
Killing by Remote Control </i>(Verso, 2013) 15. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div id="edn2" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_ednref2" name="_edn2" style="mso-endnote-id: edn2;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[ii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> M Benjamin <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Drone Warfare;
Killing by Remote Control </i>(Verso, 2013) 17.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn3" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_ednref3" name="_edn3" style="mso-endnote-id: edn3;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[iii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> For instance the United Nations Convention of Certain Conventional
Weapons (1980), which regulates landmines, incendiary weapons and blinding
lasers, amongst others.<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn4" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_ednref4" name="_edn4" style="mso-endnote-id: edn4;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[iv]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> It should be noted that this is distinct from international
humanitarian law (or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jus in bello</i>)
which governs the conduct of hostilities once they have begun, which is not
considered here.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn5" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_ednref5" name="_edn5" style="mso-endnote-id: edn5;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[v]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> The other exceptions to the prohibition are </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">collective actions in response to
threats to peace, under Chapter VII UNC, as well as the more controversial
humanitarian intervention. A state is able to consent to foreign intervention
within its territory as an inherent aspect of sovereignty, but this removes the
act from the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jus ad bellum</i> framework,
rather than rendering it lawful within it.</span><span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn6" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_ednref6" name="_edn6" style="mso-endnote-id: edn6;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[vi]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> Necessity and proportionality do not originate with the UN Charter
but from much earlier customary international law, as evidenced in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Carline</i> affair of 1837 in which self-defence
was deemed lawful only when the ‘</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">necessity of that self-defense is instant, overwhelming, and leaving no
choice of means, and no moment for deliberation’.</span><span lang="EN-GB"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn7" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_ednref7" name="_edn7" style="mso-endnote-id: edn7;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[vii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> M Koskenniemi ‘What Should International Lawyers Learn from Karl
Marx?’ (2004) 17 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Leiden Journal of
International Law </i>229, 236.</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn8" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_ednref8" name="_edn8" style="mso-endnote-id: edn8;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[viii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> I Brownlie ‘Legal Regulation of the Use of Force’ (1959) 8 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">International and Comparative Law Quarterly</i>
707, 718.</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn9" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_ednref9" name="_edn9" style="mso-endnote-id: edn9;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[ix]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> I Kant ‘Toward Perpetual Peace’ (DL Colclasure trnsl.) in P
Kleingeld <i>Toward Perpetual Peace and Other Writings on Politics, Peace, and
History</i> (Yale University Press, 2006) 73.</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn10" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_ednref10" name="_edn10" style="mso-endnote-id: edn10;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[x]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> <i>Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua
(Nicaragua v. United States of America)</i> ICJ Reports (1986) [195].</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn11" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_ednref11" name="_edn11" style="mso-endnote-id: edn11;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xi]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> <i>Advisory Opinion Concerning the Legal Consequences of the
Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territories</i> ICJ Reports
(2004) [139].</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn12" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_ednref12" name="_edn12" style="mso-endnote-id: edn12;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> <i>Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic
Republic of the Congo v. Uganda) </i>ICJ Reports (2005) [146].</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn13" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_ednref13" name="_edn13" style="mso-endnote-id: edn13;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xiii]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> JJ Paust ‘Self-Defence Targetings of Non-State Actors and
Premissibility of US Use of Drones in Pakistan’ (2010) 19(2) <i>J.Transnat'l
L.& Pol'y</i> 237, 244-7.</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn14" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_ednref14" name="_edn14" style="mso-endnote-id: edn14;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xiv]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> AC Orr ‘Unmanned, Unprecedented, and Unresolved: The Status of
American Drone Strikes in Pakistan Under International Law’ (2011) 44 <i>Cornell
Intl LJ</i> 729, 739.</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn15" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_ednref15" name="_edn15" style="mso-endnote-id: edn15;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xv]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SJ Power ‘Letter dated
23 September 2014 from the Permanent Representative of the United States of
America to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General’ S/2014/695<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="edn16" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5980727103912726989#_ednref16" name="_edn16" style="mso-endnote-id: edn16;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Cambria; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[xvi]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> See e.g. H Koh ‘The Obama Administration and International Law’
(March, 2010) Speech at the Annual Meeting of the American Society of
International Law; and </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Eric
Holder ‘Attorney General Eric Holder Speaks at Northwestern University School
of Law’ (2012) <http://www.justice.gov/opa/speech/attorney-general-eric-holder-speaks-northwestern-university-school-law>
(accessed 20 August 2015).</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</div>
Max Brookman-Byrnehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12127758207216761634noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5980727103912726989.post-51933405647017643882016-07-04T05:20:00.001-07:002016-07-05T06:38:39.188-07:00‘…otherwise targetable…’: the curious case of the US and its expansive targeting practices <div class="MsoNormal">
Within the last few days, the US government
has released <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/07/01/fact-sheet-executive-order-us-policy-pre-post-strike-measures-address">figures</a>
detailing its estimate of the number of civilians and combatants killed by
drone strikes ‘outside areas of active hostilities’ (presumably Pakistan, Yemen
and Somalia). While much <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/jul/01/obama-drones-strikes-civilian-deaths">commentary</a>
has focused upon the veracity of the figures given (many outlets estimate far
higher numbers of civilian fatalities, for instance the <a href="https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/2016/07/01/obama-drone-casualty-numbers-fraction-recorded-bureau/">Bureau
of Investigative Journalism</a>) I would like to draw attention to a rather curious
phrase which features not in the White House’s statement itself, but in the <a href="https://www.dni.gov/files/documents/Newsroom/Press%20Releases/DNI+Release+on+CT+Strikes+Outside+Areas+of+Active+Hostilities.PDF">document</a> produced by the Office of
the Director of National Intelligence which contains the figures. The passage
in question goes like this:</div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
‘The U.S. Government
draws on all available information (including sensitive intelligence) to
determine whether an individual is part of a belligerent party fighting against
the United States in an armed conflict; taking a direct part in hostilities
against the United States; or<i> otherwise
targetable in the exercise of national self-defense.</i>’</blockquote>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">This sentence seems to detail the US
understanding of the way individuals may be targeted lawfully, according to international
law. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It envisages three categories; the
first two are unremarkable, but the third is, to my mind, pretty peculiar.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The US asserts that there exists a category
of persons ‘otherwise targetable in the exercise of national self-defense’.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As will be shown, this does not fit with
established law on who may and may not be targeted during an armed conflict.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The law which governs when a state may kill
an individual during an armed conflict is known, prosaically, as… the law of
armed conflict (LOAC) (or more poetically as the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jus in bello</i>; or more humanistically as international humanitarian
law (IHL)).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Within the LOAC, there are
clear rules detailing who may be targeted during an armed conflict (okay, they’re
not always that clear, but they are if you ignore the vagueness... for our
purposes they’re clear, alright?).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
the case of US drone strikes, the situation is a ‘non-international armed
conflict’ (NIAC), in accordance with <a href="https://www.icrc.org/ihl/WebART/375-590006">common Article 3</a> of the
Geneva Conventions and relevant case law (see the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tadić</i> case, <a href="http://www.icty.org/x/cases/tadic/acdec/en/51002.htm">Decision on
Jurisdiction</a>) as the fighting does not take place between <a href="https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/ART/375-590005?OpenDocument">two
states</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In such a conflict,
individuals may be targeted when they are: members of dissident armed forces (a
category which does not apply in the areas in which drones are used); members
of organised armed groups; or individuals directly participating in hostilities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These categories arise out of <a href="https://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/7c4d08d9b287a42141256739003e636b/d67c3971bcff1c10c125641e0052b545">treaty</a>
and <a href="https://www.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_cha_chapter1_rule3">customary
law</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>None of these categories
resemble the notion of those ‘otherwise targetable’ posited in the DNI
document.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So immediately it seems that
the DNI document has revealed a method of targeting that operates outside of
the legal framework.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The DNI document links those ‘otherwise
targetable’ with ‘the exercise of national self-defense’, which suggests a
cross-pollination from another area of law governing force.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">It is axiomatic to those who study
international law that there is a distinction between the LOAC and the law
which governs the use of force in self-defence (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jus ad bellum</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Indeed, they
are two entirely separate areas of law.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jus ad bellum</i> provides
criteria under which force may be resorted to—it governs the lawfulness of the
resort rather than the specifics of the way force is used.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Generally, force is prohibited under <a href="http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/chapter-i/">Article 2(4)</a> of
the UN Charter but will be lawful if undertaken in self-defence, according to <a href="http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/chapter-vii/index.html">Article
51</a> of the Charter (or customary law).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This Article requires that, for self-defence to be lawful, there must
have been an armed attack (itself a contentious concept) and that the use of
force is necessary and proportionate to that attack.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is the gateway which must be passed through before
a state may use any force.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is clear
that the law of self-defence has no bearing whatsoever on who may be targeted;
that is entirely within the purview of the LOAC.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">So, is the US using a standard that governs
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">resort</i> to force to determine a
question of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">on-going</i> force, to establish
who may be targeted by armed drones?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> It seems like it may be. </span>If
so this would greatly expand the scope for targeting and allow the US to conduct
strikes and call them legal if they were undertaken as part of an operation
which was lawful under the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jus ad bellum</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But, as we know, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jus ad bellum</i> does not relate to the specifics of force—its remit
ceases once force has been resorted to, at which point the LOAC takes over.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Taken to the extreme, the ‘otherwise
targetable’ doctrine would mean that once force began in self-defence, any
individual killed as part of the action would have been targeted lawfully.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To my mind, it recalls the concept of ‘naked
self-defence’, <a href="http://media.hoover.org/sites/default/files/documents/FutureChallenges_Anderson.pdf">proposed
by Ken Anderson</a>, in which lawful self-defence allows uses of military force
but in the absence of an armed conflict (I reject this notion entirely: the use
of military force outside of an armed conflict is almost certain to be illegal,
regardless of whether the original resort<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">
</i>was legal under<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> jus ad bellum</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The idea that individuals (and let’s be
honest here, we’re talking about civilians) are ‘otherwise targetable in the
exercise of national self-defense’ appears to be an attempt by the US to create
an extra-legal space in which actions may be justified as not unlawful by
virtue of the fact that norms of international law have been bypassed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is hallmarked by broad categories (‘otherwise
targetable’, how broad is that?!) and confusion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It represents the fostering of uncertainty in
a clear drive to influence the discourse surrounding extraterritorial drone
strikes in a way that makes them appear generally legal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">I am surprised that this phrase has not
caused more of a storm, it’s incongruity on the legal landscape is stark.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is no wonder that the US has managed to
produce civilian casualty statistics so different from those proffered by NGOs:
its categorisation of those who are lawfully targetable by drones is vast.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The implications of the inclusion of this
phrase within the US targeting policy are very dire indeed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Drones will continue to be used, as long as
the enemies of the US reside in hard to reach areas.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Meanwhile the legal frameworks in place to
protect civilians and mitigate the consequences of war are gradually eroded, to
be replaced by a soup of interpretations in which (borderline) unlawful,
indiscriminate and trigger-happy uses of force can be relabelled as precise, clinical
and neatly legal. I am alarmed; I wonder if others agree?</span> </div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkQrCbh_fW1ifYPfbzd9J2gg33OP5Z3bi-xIFMs0vPj-y5iBKLohLJq4DdLdPWY8cxf869ix0qunkZmGvfrL_fEyI3rmBA7X-WTH5NfYi_FRURTZBJlTxEQYn5fVyF8109-z5d6NH7n1E/s1600/Screen+Shot+2016-07-04+at+15.06.20.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="391" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkQrCbh_fW1ifYPfbzd9J2gg33OP5Z3bi-xIFMs0vPj-y5iBKLohLJq4DdLdPWY8cxf869ix0qunkZmGvfrL_fEyI3rmBA7X-WTH5NfYi_FRURTZBJlTxEQYn5fVyF8109-z5d6NH7n1E/s400/Screen+Shot+2016-07-04+at+15.06.20.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A fairly accurate depiction of the present author's feelings on US targeting policy</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Max Brookman-Byrnehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12127758207216761634noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5980727103912726989.post-64216971585418108582016-05-06T02:56:00.000-07:002016-05-08T04:08:26.233-07:00ESRC socio-legal masterclass, 3-4 May 2016: Are we all socio-legal now?<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAAWSZUfuPZ7u9nnhMJu8I-xTB9r5Utu0RG4jC5YyAu9cDAKcxkDphx91GRrol6xpycbHcxL_pW3RsT24nDfG2JdTSC-UBIJpNdsz5XiLkt46uKzF_DTHuXJ7mPSjVnxcw-v0K9QYRfJQ/s1600/Lodge.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAAWSZUfuPZ7u9nnhMJu8I-xTB9r5Utu0RG4jC5YyAu9cDAKcxkDphx91GRrol6xpycbHcxL_pW3RsT24nDfG2JdTSC-UBIJpNdsz5XiLkt46uKzF_DTHuXJ7mPSjVnxcw-v0K9QYRfJQ/s200/Lodge.jpg" width="200" /></a>On the 3 May 2016, eighteen fresh-faced
PhD students and a handful of academics found their way, haphazardly, to
Cumberland Lodge, in the grounds of the beautiful (though almost sinister—we
were told that leaving the Lodge after dark would result in our being accosted
by guards and returned. Anyone seen <a href="https://youtu.be/I6Ffr1U7KMY?t=12s">The Prisoner</a>?) Windsor Great
Park, for two days of immersive socio-legal discussion. Geographically, we all arrived at the same
spot at the same time through multiple different routes, which neatly sums up
the discovery of socio-legal studies by postgrads working in law. For instance while others seemed to
miraculously get straight to the Lodge, I confidently arrived at a nearby town
on a train from London, and then <a href="http://www.gmap-pedometer.com/?r=6857935">spent a long time lost</a>, as did
my taxi driver, traveling to and fro around the bucolic idyll of Windsor. Having arrived at multiple entrances to the
park which were all firmly closed, we finally found a gate that opened and let
us in, only to discover that we were then lost within the park itself. Needless to say, I made it to the Lodge just
before the coffee ran out. My experience
of socio-legal studies has been similar: a confident beginning (doctrinal law
was the business), followed by total confusion in the stunning theoretical
scenery of my LLM in critical jurisprudence, before an arrival in the perhaps
equally, though differently, puzzling yet irresistibly promising world of
socio-legal research. In this metaphor,
I am yet to discover whether there is any coffee left…</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The masterclass was led by <a href="http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/law/staff/linda-mulcahy.htm">Linda
Mulcahy</a> (LSE) under the auspices of the ESRC DTCs and principally took the form
of group discussions around a set of issues and collection of texts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mercifully, the sessions did not religiously
rely on the texts that had been set (I may have crammed a little on the train in…)
and instead emphasised free discussion about our thoughts on and experiences
with socio-legal research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Due to this,
I’m going to focus more on the themes that emerged from these dialogues rather
than specific questions concerning the texts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The first session focused on our
understandings of what socio-legal research is.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It was, for me, the most valuable session as my research in
international law and warfare kind of sets me on the fringe of socio-legal
research, particularly in terms of method.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>After a quasi-interview of <a href="http://www.law.cf.ac.uk/contactsandpeople/thomaspa">Phil Thomas</a> (Cardiff)
by <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/law/people/david-s-cowan/index.html">Dave
Cowan</a> (Bristol) we had an engaging discussion of what we postgrads
understand socio-legal work to be.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Opinions
ranged greatly between us, socio-legal scholarship being variously seen as a
separate discipline, the application of non-law methodologies to the study of
law and related issues, a rebellion against power in general, a rebellion
against power in the form of the traditional law school and so on.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One possibility that particularly chimed with
me was the notion, proposed by Thomas, that socio-legal research aims be
subversive in an incremental and progressive manner, in contrast to the radical
challenge to power that is the hallmark of critical approaches to law.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">This theme was picked up at the second
session, dealing with ‘critical empiricism’ (that kind of gives away what some
of the assigned reading might have been…).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In this session, run by Mulcahy and Cowan, the maintenance of critical self-awareness
by socio-legal researchers was emphasised.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>For me the key message was that the apparently intractable antagonism
between socio-legal and critical scholarship is really rather illusory, the
barrier separating them being entirely permeable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Interestingly, this feeling had been
discussed over lunch, prior to the session, by some of the postgraduate
attendees.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This, for me encapsulated why
socio-legal work can be about the adoption of alternate methodologies, often
from sociology, in legal research with a view to challenging ‘power’, be that
of the state, the law school, corporations or whatever.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It seems that socio-legal and critical work
exist on the same spectrum of challenges to power.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At one end there is the radical (or
revolutionary) approach and at the other there is (perhaps) the uncritical
compliance with power.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the former end
we are most likely to find work that would call itself critical, while at the
latter we may find traditional doctrinal legal scholarship, with work more accepting
of the law as it is.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I reckon that socio-legal
studies can really exist at any point on that spectrum, bar the latter
end.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Its aims are unfixed in terms of the
extent to which power is challenged, though nonetheless defined by the presence
of the challenge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">Next was a conversation between <a href="http://www.law.qmul.ac.uk/staff/hunter.html">Rosemary Hunter</a> (QMUL) and <a href="http://www.sthildas.ox.ac.uk/academic-staff/academic-staff-ms-mavis-maclean">Mavis
Maclean</a> (Oxford) about Maclean’s extensive work with the Ministry of
Justice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This was the perfect segue from
the previous session, as work so closely undertaken with a government department
appears to run the risk of being co-opted, its potential challenge to power
losing its force.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was an insightful
discussion in terms of the practicalities of such research but Maclean was also
happy to grapple with the argument that her type of socio-legal work might
become supportive of the status-quo.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Further emphasising the spectrum of possible types of socio-legal work,
the message from this session was about the ability of such research to stop,
or mitigate, crazy (my word, not hers) policy decisions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is perhaps the subtlest form of
challenge to power that socio-legal research can offer, but it is a vital one.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If you’re not a revolutionary then informing policy
decisions with evidence based research has to be one of the most important aims
for those of us working in the academy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">The following three sessions (one after
dinner and drinks, the other two after breakfast: oh how those established
academics worked us!!) focused on the very real need for socio-legal
researchers to be able to formulate research plans which can be communicated to
people with money.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After receiving a scenario,
we split into groups of three and formulated then pitched our research
ideas.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For me this was an eye-opening
session—I learned a lot about the practical side of running surveys, conducting
interviews and many other activities I’ve not yet carried out.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each group’s pitch was well received by our
colleagues and the academics, who gave us in-depth and detailed feedback.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These sessions felt very much to have left
behind the themes of challenges to power and focused instead on the skills
socio-legal researchers need.<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB">This continued in the final substantive
session, in which <a href="http://www.law.qmul.ac.uk/staff/malleson.html">Kate
Malleson</a> (QMUL) and <a href="https://www.strath.ac.uk/staff/patersonalanprof/">Alan Paterson</a> (Strathclyde)
discussed the trials and tribulations of interviewing ‘elites’.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This session fit very well with the work
undertaken by some of the attendees, which resulted in some very interesting
conversations which I’m sure were highly beneficial to many. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Following this there was a session for
reflection about our two days together, which I’m sure was excellent though I
missed out on it as I had to leave early.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Perhaps someone can summarise it in a comment below!</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In a very promising sign, the penultimate
session had to be cut short: as I said, some of us had to leave early, but not
before we had all posed for a group photo!
This was instigated not by the organisers but by us students. During our time together we had fostered a
great sense of community (like Phil’s group in the 1970s, though with less
football… See <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Socio_legal_Studies.html?id=CupkQgAACAAJ&redir_esc=y&hl=en">Thomas,
1997: 9</a>), and have agreed to create an informal network to aid our on-going
research. There was a palpable sense of potential
and excitement about the future.
Ultimately this is perhaps the most important result of the two-day masterclass,
I hope very much that it signals a continued interest in socio-legal research
and that one day it will be a group of us hosting a similar event for
optimistic young doctoral students.</div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibUpNfBEwkCFt8oYHLgtjtYomk1BleXL5j8XxnOfNnyv-WFOg1o3kY893bVWxU-bPaHusOrwwBWDfXhDpNOf-SEPi8ayiVJKXfYeZN8YQqgEXZt7rD1p7VSo6ZwcqFmKaw_yhcHtuhMnk/s1600/Screen+Shot+2016-05-06+at+10.51.56.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="161" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibUpNfBEwkCFt8oYHLgtjtYomk1BleXL5j8XxnOfNnyv-WFOg1o3kY893bVWxU-bPaHusOrwwBWDfXhDpNOf-SEPi8ayiVJKXfYeZN8YQqgEXZt7rD1p7VSo6ZwcqFmKaw_yhcHtuhMnk/s400/Screen+Shot+2016-05-06+at+10.51.56.png" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> This just a representation, I haven't got a copy of the original photo...</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><br /></span></div>
Max Brookman-Byrnehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12127758207216761634noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5980727103912726989.post-78777889389670847962016-04-29T07:33:00.002-07:002016-04-29T07:34:34.586-07:00International Law and The Eye in the Sky: a hasty critique<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;">Gavin Hood’s </span><a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt2057392/" style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">The Eye in the Sky</a><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;"> is a timely
release for me.</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;">I am <i>just </i></span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;">on the wrong side of halfway
through my thesis examining the legality of armed drone strikes and all of a
sudden a film arrives which attempts just that.</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;">
</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;">Well, sort of.</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;">BEWARE of reading
on if you’ve not yet seen the film, I’ve included some SERIOUS SPOILERS!</span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;">Go watch it now then come and read this later…</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDZRLSTnoU5j95A6xCISV9AZKf_MQLJLF-As0E10XcdGNHCO3jl7aH-HBALCK9pmQkwvKbqvdJTUQ4YtnGIne4lavaRBAoHDJMnv_1JJ0YrhNHte9HFsOSmvwC01gYjeUAIUwxvBgjS9A/s1600/EITS.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDZRLSTnoU5j95A6xCISV9AZKf_MQLJLF-As0E10XcdGNHCO3jl7aH-HBALCK9pmQkwvKbqvdJTUQ4YtnGIne4lavaRBAoHDJMnv_1JJ0YrhNHte9HFsOSmvwC01gYjeUAIUwxvBgjS9A/s200/EITS.jpg" width="134" /></a><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;">Much of the film focuses on the legality of
a drone strike upon a meeting of identified members of al-Shabaab the Somali armed
group, in a house within a compound in Nairobi, Kenya.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It concerns the debate surrounding the change
of a mission from one aimed at capturing subjects to one in which they become
targets, to be killed by a missile fired from a drone.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Prominent is the issue of collateral deaths,
as a young girl named Fatima (played by Faisa Hassan), sets up a stall selling
bread next to the targeted house and will likely be killed by the strike.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The purpose of this piece is to consider, in
brief, the various legal elements of the film.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>If you want to know where, in terms of cold hard doctrine, the film got
it totally wrong, then skip ahead to paragraph five!<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;">The first is that of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jus ad bellum</i>, the law governing when force can be used
extraterritorially.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Normally, states are
prohibited from using force under <a href="http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/chapter-i/">Article 2(4) of the
UN Charter</a>, except in cases of self-defence, as enshrined in <a href="http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/chapter-vii/index.html">Article
51</a> of the Charter and customary law.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>At first glance, this might seem the most problematic aspect of the
strike—there is reference in the film to Kenya being ‘a friendly country’,
implying that the use of force would be in breach of the Article 2(4)
prohibition—the UK is clearly not using force to defend itself against Kenya.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, the strike is a joint operation,
lead by the British but with clear support from the Kenyan military.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We can therefore infer that the Kenyan
government has given its consent to the operation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consent—as I have written about in depth <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/20531702.2015.1135658">elsewhere</a>—vitiates
questions of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jus ad bellum</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There is no infringement of a state’s
sovereignty when that state has authorised the strike, an act which is inherently
an exercise of sovereignty.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kenya has consented
so there is no infringement of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jus ad
bellum</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So far, so legal.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;">Secondly is the question of whether the
strike was lawful under international humanitarian law (IHL), the law that
governs warfare (in peacetime human rights and domestic law applies) and it is
this that occupies the majority of the film.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Much time is spent wrangling over the calculation to be made between the
collateral damage likely to occur (Fatima being blown to pieces) and the
‘concrete and direct military advantage anticipated’.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This calculation found in <a href="https://www.icrc.org/ihl/WebART/470-750065">Article 51(5)(b) of
Additional Protocol I of the Geneva Conventions</a> and customary international
law.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The realities of this calculation
are beyond my experience, but I was told soon after watching the film that,
sadly, the death of one child balanced against those of three high-level
members of a terrorist group, three additional low-ranking members and the
prevention of two suicide attacks, is not one that would take long to make: the
strike would definitely go ahead.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And doubtless,
under IHL, it would be legal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this
way the main legal questions of the film are ultimately uncontentious, and the
main dilemma political and moral, rendered cold through the operation of
strategic legal language (discussed excellently <a href="http://criticallegalthinking.com/2016/04/19/eye-sky-drones-human-ticking-time-bomb-scenario-laws-inhumanity/">here</a>
by Ntina Tzouvala). <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;">But there is a problem!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>IHL and the collateral damage calculation are
only applicable <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">during an armed conflict</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The assumption throughout is that the
situation in which the strike occurred was an armed conflict and that therefore
IHL was applicable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But this assumption is
incorrect: the UK is not in an armed conflict with al-Shabaab.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For it to be, there must be violence which is
protracted and an armed group which is organised (held by the ICTY in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="http://www.icty.org/x/cases/tadic/acdec/en/51002.htm">Tadić <span style="font-style: normal;">jurisdiction decision</span></a></i>, paragraph 70).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Al-Shabaab is certainly organised,
demonstrating many indicative features identified in international jurisprudence
(for instance, in the film itself we see the use of checkpoints, cited as
evidence of organisation by the Tribunal in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="http://www.icty.org/x/cases/limaj/tjug/en/lim-tj051130-e.pdf">Limaj
<span style="font-style: normal;">judgement</span></a></i>, paragraph 145).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But there is no protracted violence between
the UK and al-Shabaab, nor has there been.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It is possible that there is an armed conflict with Kenya since the horrific
attacks on the <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2013/oct/04/westgate-mall-attacks-kenya-terror">Westgate
shopping mall</a> and <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/07/kenyan-families-mourn-best-brightest-garissa-attack">Garissa
University College</a> but these attacks are insufficiently intense to have
produced a non-international armed conflict; though awful, they were terrorist
acts which have been distinguished from armed conflicts (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="http://www.icty.org/x/cases/tadic/tjug/en/tad-tsj70507JT2-e.pdf">Tadić <span style="font-style: normal;">Trial Judgment</span></a></i>, paragraph 562).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus the strike occurred outside of an armed
conflict situation.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;">Therefore, the international law that
should have been applied to the strike is not IHL, but human rights, rules
which are far less permissive than IHL when it comes to killing: there is no
balancing of collateral damage and military necessity within human rights.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Though Kenya consented, no state can consent
to acts with contravene human rights.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I
am no human rights expert (that comes in the final third of <a href="http://www.reading.ac.uk/GlobalLaw/pg-research/GLAR-pg-research.aspx#law-phd-glar-MaxByrne">the
PhD</a>, I’m not there yet!) but the right to life under <a href="http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Convention_ENG.pdf">Article 2 of the European
Convention on Human Rights</a> is only derogable in, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">inter alia</i>, instances of armed conflict, which is exactly what does
not exist in The Eye in the Sky.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx">Article 6 of
the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a> provides that ‘No
one shall be arbitrarily deprived of [her or] his life’ but it seems that this
is exactly what has occurred at the end, when the dust settles and Fatima lies
dying on the ground. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif;">It seems, as such, that the strike was
carried out contrary to international law, though this is not immediately
evident from the film. That the decision
to carry out a drone strike is a political, rather than legal, choice is apparent
by the fact that the lawyers in the film possess about as much backbone as a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boring_clam">tridacna crocea</a>. Nonetheless, the likely initial and ongoing feeling
elicited by the film is that the strike was unpleasant though legal, despite
the fact that it was quite the opposite.
In this manner, the film makes a, presumably accidental, point about the
nature of those drone strikes currently being carried out in the world, which are
continually asserted to ‘<a href="http://www.state.gov/s/l/releases/remarks/139119.htm">comply with all
applicable law, including the laws of war</a>’.
In actual fact, the legal reality is infinitely less straightforward.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Max Brookman-Byrnehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12127758207216761634noreply@blogger.com0